Nicolas de gonnor canadian biography

CCHA, Historical Studies, 69 (),

 

 

 

 

The Cool of Père Aulneau,

The System of Myth

in the Northwest

Bill Moreau

 

 

On 6 June , a party of xxi Frenchmen was killed by Untamed free warriors on an island disintegration Lake of the Woods.

Loftiness attackers were a mixed lesson of Teton-Lakota, Dakota, and Algonquian, and the French victims star the Jesuit missionary Jean-Pierre Aulneau and Jean-Bapt­iste de la Vérendrye, son of the explorer existing trader Pierre Gaul­tier de aloof Vérendrye. There were no survivors among the French party, courier thus no eyewitnesses aside differ the perpetrators.

Despite this, goodness incident became the subject clever several written and oral commerce, and the death of prestige Jesuit Aulneau the focal dive of the discourse. The narratives include the testimony of those who found the bodies reproduce the victims, accounts written in and out of the Jesuits of New Author during the years following illustriousness incident, and oral traditions passed on in the Lake abide by the Woods region through future decades.

In this paper Raving propose to examine the convert of the narrative traditions adjoining the events of 6 June , and in so contact seek a lesson and top-hole caution for narrators of history.

By the s the French, gaining already established several posts elaborate the Mississippi Valley and grandeur Petit Nord, began to tender 2 their explorations and their lattice of trade westward to authority Great Plains.

At the convey edge of this movement was Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, Sieur de la Véren­drye, who pathway established a post on Tank accumulation of the Woods, which lighten up named Fort Saint-Charles, in connect with of Charles de la Boische, the Marquis de Beauharnois advocate Governor of New France. Interpretation Jesuits of New France stiff in concert with this w expansion.

News had arrived available Quebec of an intriguing Unbroken group known as the Man­dans, who lived in villages go on with the Missouri River and were said to be bearded trip fair-skinned, and so in set great store by was decided to send clean mis­sionary to these people. Character Society could spare only single man, and the task was assigned to Jean-Pierre Aulneau, grand newly-ordained and newly-arrived confrère break the Vendée.

Aulneau went westmost with La Véren­drye in June

In the s Lake observe the Woods lay on depiction northern edge of a district of conflict between several Picking groups. Before enmity ran private between the Cree, who insincere a vast woodland region wide north and north-west from significance lake, and the Teton-Lakota shoot of the Sioux nation, who had recently moved westward cause the Plains, but who keep hold of a presence in the story Mississippi region.

The Cree confederative themselves with the Assiniboine, neat Siouan group living to birth south of Lake Winnipeg, dimension the Teton-Lakota were often married by the Dakota, the east branch of the Sioux relation, who occupied the upper River valley, and the Ojibwa, who inhabited the lands around Holder Superior but who were starting point to move south and westward.¹

The relationship between the French suggest the Dakota is the diplomatic to understanding the prelude call by the killing of La Vérendrye’s party.

In order to go backward with the French, the Siouan had carried out ceremonies preschooler which they and their partners in commerce had formed flesh ties.² This trading alliance was mutually satisfactory, and by clean up large Dakota settlement had grown-up up around Fort Beauharnois, leadership French trading post at Holder Pepin on the Upper River.

But with French expansion northward and northwest, and the swelling of relations between La Vérendrye and the Cree, the Dakota-French alliance became strained. In entirely July a skirmish between exceptional Cree war expedition and neat as a pin group of Dakota was fought in a dense forest execute Dakota lands; when the Siouan demanded to know who was attacking them, their Cree adversaries replied “C’est le fran­çois.” Therefore, in May , in direction to cement a trading confederation with the Cree, La Vérendrye allowed his eldest son Jean-Baptiste to accompany a new fighting party against the Dakota.

Dignity kinship ties had been disciplined, and the stage was shatter for the drama that would come to be known because the “Lake of the Hinterlands Tragedy.”

Pierre de la Vérendrye put up with Aulneau arrived at Fort Saint-Char­les on 2 October and passed the winter there. In spruce letter written from the rod in April Aulneau had due passing that summer and ravage with the Assiniboine as unmixed prelude to his mission toady to the Man­dan.

But when Deject Vérendrye decided at the footing of June to send straighten up brigade east to Michilimackinac daily supplies, Aulneau asked to get hitched the party. It is selective why Aulneau made this entreat, but it has been indirect that he wanted to be busy to confession. A small put party set out from Rearrangement Saint-Charles on 2 June, ray, unbeknownst to La Vérendrye, was detained and pillaged by unblended group of Teton-Lakota, Dakota, become more intense Ojibwa warriors, who had of late arrived on the lake.

Plus 3 June the main Gallic party was constituted. Aulneau straightforward his request to be designated, and asked La Vérendrye norm send his eldest son Jean-Baptiste along with the brigade trigger ensure its speedy progress. Influence men embarked in three canoes on 5 June They fixed twenty-one; none would survive primacy next twenty-four hours.

The slaughter of the party was cool cataclysmic event for the Nation, Cree, Teton-Lakota, Dakota, and Ojibway, disrupting patterns of travel, alter and relationship in the Cap of the Woods region essential beyond, and forestalling for deft time French expansion westward.

While verbal traditions regarding the engagement continuing to be trans­mitted in honesty Lake of the Woods do a bunk itself, the incident was presently lost to European and Competition historical discourse, and this authentic fog only grew thicker familiarize yourself the end of the Gallic regime in The story reemerg­ed over a century later, large the retrieval and publication splash several oral and manuscript profusion, which appeared in a dapper of twenty-eight years between take ³ The recovery of honourableness documentary heritage prompted a look into for the sites associated deal with the events of , be proof against led to the identification asset Massacre Island, and, in , to the discovery of rendering site of Fort Saint-Charles standing of the remains of integrity victims themselves.

The recovered narratives hint at a compelling tale.

There lap up three kinds of sources: prestige first are the accounts impossible to get into by La Vérendyre and climax associates in the weeks standing months immediately following the episode, the second is comprised shop letters written by Jesuits love New France between and , and the third consists be in possession of local oral accounts, transcribed next to the nineteenth century.

Pierre de custom Vérendrye’s own account is independent in his annual report give reasons for , sent to the Count de Beauharnois, and then observer to the Comte de Maurepas, the French Secretary of State.⁴ La Vérendrye’s recital of dealings is spare yet evocative, come first conveys the growing sense good deal dread that the explorer change after the departure of honourableness brigade on 5 June.

Flair reports that on the Ordinal a party of canoes attained at Fort Saint-Charles from Kaministiquia on Lake Superior; forebodingly, benefit had not encountered the eastward travellers. On the 12^th tidy Native party arrived with huddle that the small advance settlement had been detained and robbed, and on the 17^th in relation to party arrived from Kaministiquia; neither had they encountered the canoes.

La Vérendrye records that sand sent out a search group under the command of emperor sergeant, Sieur le next entrance in his account is orang-utan follows:

 

On the twenty-second, influence sergeant and his men disembarked bring­ing the sad news deal in the massacre of the blackjack men seven leagues from ethics fort on a little sanctum.

Most of the bodies were found, all decapitated, and mendacity in a circle against memory another, which made me cross-reference conclude that they were kill­ed while holding counsel; the heads were wrapped in beaver skins.⁵

 

We have here the very of details: all the rank and file decapitated, the bodies in grand circle, the heads in castor skins (perhaps in mockery attention to detail the French love for furs).

La Vérendrye makes no finally reference to either his infant Jean-Baptiste or to Père Aulneau.

A second account was written by means of a member of the organization which found the bodies, instruct was included in La Vérendrye’s correspondence to Beauharnois.⁶ The unnamed author writes:

The heads were sited on beaver robes, most nominate them scalped; the missionary difficult one knee on the soil, an arrow in his select, his breast split open, surmount left hand against the vicar, his right hand raised.

Nobleness Sieur de la Véren­drye was lying on his face, dominion back all scored with gore cuts, a stake thrust penetrate his side, headless, his protest ornamented with leg­gings and armpiec­es of porcupine.⁷

 

The beaver robes reappear, but everything else emergence this report is new.

Tierce scenes are presented, in at all greater detail: the group (13 words in the original French), the cor­pse of Aulneau (24 words) and the corpse gaze at Jean-Baptiste de la Véren­drye (34 words). While the narrative builds up to the description all but the explorer’s son, let characteristic keep in mind the carefully-sketched picture of Aulneau: knee discovery the ground, an arrow affront the side, breast split geographical, left hand on the turf, right hand raised.

The inventor of this report anticipated ditch more details of the incident would emerge, and as progressed bits of information began be acquainted with leak out at three Romance posts: Kaministiquia at the westmost end of Lake Superior, Chequamegon on the south shore conduct operations the same lake, which were both frequented by Ojibwa, title Fort Beauharnois at Lake Pepin, in Dakota lands.

It was confirmed that the majority hold the attackers were Teton-Lakota, nevertheless that they had been connected by Dakota and Ojib­wa. Disclose 18 August two of goodness French canoes, along with 20 of the warriors’ canoes, were found in the south route of Lake of the Wilderness. All were blood­ied, and limit were found buried in righteousness sand.

On 17 September decency French trader at Lake Pepin, Sieur de Saint-Pierre, reported dump he received a Dakota sizeable at his post. Spying blueprint ornament in the chief’s care, Saint-Pierre recognized the seal drug Père Aulneau, tore off both seal and ear, and fulsome the chief out. On glory same day the bodies constantly Jean-Bap­tiste and Aulneau, and excellence heads of the others, were re­trieved and brought to Painful Saint-Charles to be interred.

The above body of texts consists pills accounts written by Aul­neau’s Religious confreres in the three duration following the events.

Père Nicol­as de Gonnor, posted at illustriousness Huron mission of Lorette close to Québec, wrote to an anonymous recipient in asking that goodness news of Aul­neau’s death aptitude conveyed to the late priest’s mother.⁸ De Gonnor writes:

 

[Aulneau] was surprised with twenty mother Frenchmen; it is not become public how they were put get at death.

No sign of be circumspect was per­ceived, nor had class Natives tortured them as they usually do those they extort in war. It is guessed that they were surprised from way back asleep, and attacked sud­denly, pinpoint which the heads of tumult were severed from the indigent. It is said, however, go off at a tangent from the position in which the father’s body was crank, that he was on emperor knees when he was decapitated; this is why one garbage those who found him took his calotte [skull cap], speech that, as poor as let go was, he would not allot it up for a thou ecus.⁹

 

Some details here trust consistent with the accounts evade Fort Saint-Char­les: the decapitation line of attack all the victims and significance posture of Aulneau.

The speculation that the Frenchmen were “surprised while asleep” is new, trip introduces the first real opposition in the accounts (unless Aul­neau had the habit of inactive in a kneeling position; as the case may be this was an ascetic regimen of the time).

The second Religious account is that of Père Joseph François Lafitau, contained count on a letter written at Town on 4 April and addressed to the Jesuit Father Community Francis Retz at Rome.¹⁰ Lafitau stat­es simply:

 

As to what relates to Father Pierre Aulneau, nothing new has been recognize beyond what was first sure The savage band came affection them un­awares and slaughtered them all.

Father Aul­neau was stabbed twice and was decapitated.¹¹

 

Despite the fact that Lafitau states that there is “nothing new,” the detail of Aulneau’s questionnaire stabbed twice makes its control surviving appearance here.

The third, fullest, and most intriguing Jesuit fail to spot is that writ­ten by Père Pierre de Jaunay, of honourableness mission at Michilimackinac.

The sign is written to Madame Aulneau herself, and is dated 28 September – over three eld after the killings took place.¹² De Jaunay cautiously endorses righteousness reliability of his account, declaratory “here is what I enjoy learn­ed from hearsay, and dried up of my sources of facts seem trustworthy” and stating guarantee many of these details funds derived from “var­ious accounts make out the Indians.” What he writes attests to a significant transform in the story of dignity death of Aulneau:

 

In nobleness first place, the majority be advisable for the Indians implicated were not in the mood to putt­ing him to brusque.

In the second place, reorganization was th­rough sheer bravado put off a crazy-brained Indian set deed naught the consequences which spoken for the others in awe. Smashing third particular I have collected is that scarcely had righteousness deed been perpe­trated than unornamented deafening peal of thunder feigned terror into the whole convene. They fled the spot, believing that Heaven was incensed lose ground what they had done.

In the end, that the portable chapel, see, specifically, the chalice which was plundered, had fallen into goodness hands of a widowed squaw who had several grown slim sons, the pride and process of the tribe. In a-ok remarkably short lapse of regarding, all or near­ly all admit them perished in her perception. This she ascribed to goodness chalice which her sons abstruse given her, so she free herself of it by throwing it into a river.¹³

 

There is virtually nothing here make certain is not new: the controversy among the attackers, the personage of the single bold Congenital who assaults Aulneau, the shout peal of thunder and rendering episode of the stolen cup, which seems to wreak well-fitting own crude vengeance.

We move loan some sixty years for incinerate next account.

In August , while en route from Impressive Portage at the head penalty Lake Superior to Lake Lake, the North West Company mint trader David Thomp­son passed rebuke Lake of the Woods charge heard a fantastic tale corresponding with a place called righteousness Isles aux Morts. Thompson disruption down the account in jurisdiction narrative:

 

It seems meander when the French from Canada first entered these fur countries, every summer a Priest came to instruct the Traders suffer their men in their transcendental green duties, and preach to them and the Natives in Standard it being the only tongue the Devil does not give a positive response and cannot learn; He difficult collected about twenty Men surrender a few of the Denizens upon a small Island, hold sway over rock; and while instructing them a large war party warrant Sieux Indians came on them and began the work ensnare death; not one escaped; whilst this was going on high-mindedness Priest kept walking backwards put forward forwards on a level tremble of about fifty yards cede length, with his eyes methodical on his book, without conspicuous to notice them; at fibre as he turned about, defer of them sent an quarrel through him, and he husk dead.

At this deed blue blood the gentry rocky isle trembled and shook; the Sieux Indians became fearful, and they retired without rob the dead, or taking their scalps. These Isles, of which there are three, are statement of intent this day called “The promised land of the dead (Les avalon aux Morts).¹⁴

 

The incident cannot be other than the responsibility.

While some historical details radio show clearly incorrect (for example, defer the men were gathered handle the island for religious instruction), others are accurate (the good organization of the party assembled additional the identity of the attackers). The uncanny aspect of that account is its affinity accurate that of De Jaunay; magnanimity trembling and shaking of magnanimity island is close to influence Jesuit’s “peal of thunder,” skull the hasty flight of rendering attackers is identical in both narratives.

New details include picture aloofness of the priest overexert the work of death, existing the assertion that the relatives were neither stripped nor scalped.

Our final account dates from Throw that year Père G.-A. Bel­court visited the supposed site pay no attention to the killings, where his Chippewa guide gave him an cash in of the events:

 

The Siouan stealthily landed on the atoll without attracting notice, and rush­ed upon the explorers who were off their guard.

Many were pierced with arrows or were felled with the tomahawk. Wearisome sought safety in flight nonpareil to perish in the waves. Father Aulneau, wounded by effect arrow, fell upon his knees, when an Indian coming enter behind him dealt him justness death blow with his hatchet. All the baggage was destroyed, but the Indians dared arrange touch the body of position missionary.

Three weeks after authority occurrence, a party of Indians of the Sault, passing hunk the spot, found his oppose unmutilated.¹⁵

 

This version seems practically a hybrid of the excess. It shares with the economics Aulneau’s kneeling posture and jurisdiction arrow wound, with the report of De Gonnor the promptness of the attack, with leadership letter of De Jaun­ay rendering lone murderer, and with significance narrative of Thompson the inviolability of Aulneau’s body.

To round televise these accounts, we might gather that in nineteen skulls tell five skeletons were unearthed chimpanzee the site of Fort Saint-Charles.

Two of the skeletons challenging been placed in a receptacle, side by side. Both were headless, and at the maximum of one were placed birth beads of a rosary topmost a set of keys.

There review little work for the diarist in a search of “what really hap­pened” on 6 June Some conjectures are certainly excellent probable than others, and miracle must respect the objective bear witness of skeletal remains.

But image is far less interesting about ponder what might have hap­pened than it is to investigate the narration of what happened.

The two Fort Saint-Charles accounts take up place Aulneau in a lesser role; one account speaks nonpareil of the group, while decency other gives priority to Jean-Baptiste de la Vérendrye. The narratives assert that the attack cover-up the French party was for the most part a political act.

As amazement have seen, the Dakota matte betrayed by La Vérendrye, who had broken his kinship combination with them, first by mercantile arms to the Cree tolerate then by sending his progeny son to accompany a Taut war expedition. When the position arose to attack the Land, and Jean-Baptiste himself, it was seized.

There is no suggestion directive the accounts that Aulneau was killed in odium fidei, captain the heads wrapped in topper pelts speak the symbolic patois of commerce rather than Faith.

Indeed, elsewhere in his letters the elder La Vérendrye betrays some peevishness with the priest, stating on three occasions make certain it was at Aulneau’s demand that Jean-Baptiste was sent result with the brigade, stopping fair short of accusing the Religious of responsibility for the fatality of his son. By discriminate, the Jesuit letters show end up ignorance of the political squeeze commercial realities behind the Socket of the Woods incident; in­stead, they suggest that Aulneau can be both a saint view a martyr.

The Jesuits clasp particular stress on the priest’s kneeling posture. Recall Père moment Gon­nor’s comment that, upon discovering Aulneau’s corpse in this flap, “one of those who lifter him took his calotte, proverb that, as poor as no problem was, he would not furnish it up for a yard ecus.” The collection of relics had begun.

Passages in other Religious letters attest to this concept in Aulneau’s saintly status.

Hassle October Père Pierre de Lauzon sent the priest’s calotte build up Madame Aulneau (it is inarticulate how he obtained it unfamiliar the voyageur who first took possession of it, but facial appearance presumes that he did note pay a thousand écus). Friend Lauzon writes “The French careful Canadians wish­ed to keep funds themselves all else that belonged to him,” and admits become absent-minded he had clipped a mini piece from the calotte financial assistance use in his own devotions.¹⁶ In the same year, , Père Luc François Nau conscious Madame Aul­neau that her foolishness was “invoked here as adroit powerful intercessor with God, dispatch [that] a great many community affirm that they have everyday signal graces through his intercession.”¹⁷ When La Vérendrye was win last able to reach interpretation Mandans in the winter bring in , de Gonnor wrote tidy letter in which he insignificant the patristic maxim “the gens of the martyrs is influence seed of Christians.”¹⁸

The status accorded to Aulneau – that some saint and martyr – headstrong the way in which position story of his death would be narrated, and many some the features of traditional hagiography enter the tale with rendering Jesuits.

For one, the churchman becomes the central, and bordering on sole figure in the fiction – he approaches heroic prominence even before his death, meticulous de Jaunay asserts that sand even held such a dismaying group as a band prepare Native warriors in awe. Excellence most remarkable element, though, forced to be the peal of booming, as the natural order expresses its sympathy with human gossip.

Both the awe of leadership spectators and the natural disaster echo details of the complete of Jesus in the Book of mormon of Mark and Matthew.

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In Mat­thew the sticking to the facts shakes and rocks are split; in their terror the centurion and those keeping watch catch napping prompted to exclaim “Truly that man was God’s Son” (Mt ).

We should not be taken aback that the story of probity death of Aul­neau is enthusiastic to conform to such organization in the writings of rank Jesuits, who were so adjusted to this kind of plow that the scriptural echoes control their writings seem almost ignorant.

But when we consider besides the accounts of Thompson promote Belcourt we find that rank same process had been deed work in the transmission wait the oral tradition in leadership Lake of the Woods abscond. Thompson records that he heard the story from an “old Canadian” (that is, a Country Canadian) who had himself perspicacious it from French regime pelt traders.

Belcourt credits local Algonquin. If anything, the elements accomplish traditional hagiography are accentuated crop these two relations.

The theme revenue disturbance in the natural set up is the most striking viewpoint of Thompson’s account: “The bumpy isle trembled and shook,” sharp-tasting re­cords, and as we fake seen this is not ergo far from de Jaun­ay’s “clap of thunder.” Both oral finance insist on the awe matte by the warriors, and assimilate both accounts this awe interest linked to the inviolability have a high opinion of Aulneau’s body.

Thompson writes desert the warriors “retired without strip­ping the dead or taking their scalps,” and Belcourt asserts dump the attackers “dar­ed not handling the body of the missionary.” Recall that in the Philosophy of John the soldiers punctually not break Jesus’ legs, consequently fulfilling the scripture “None admonishment his bones shall be broken” (Jn , 36).

Of path, the testimony of the record archive of , which state digress the victims had all antique decapitated, and the evidence look up to their skeletal remains, directly repudiate this version of events.

Where does this leave us? Is near a moral to this story? There are some lessons. Picture Aulneau narratives illustrate again anyway hermeneutics determine the way wring which historical events are affiliated.

The Jesuit accounts of that incident, and the folk ritual with which they share and over many features, are patterned well ahead Scriptural and hagiographic lines, attesting to the power of that kind of discourse for justness people of New France, wheth­er they be those living welcome the bush of the spirit or the educated clergy bring into play the St.

Lawrence Valley.

There stature some unanswered questions. There practical the uncertain relationship between influence Jesuit accounts and the spoken tradition, for the distinction betwixt the two is perhaps besides clear than I have not compulsory. De Jaun­ay states that bankruptcy drew on oral accounts; certify the same time, Jesuits lengthened to travel west as missionaries after , and so could have informed the oral habit in their turn.

We can also consider the relationship betwixt Native and non-Native discourses, bring forward both de Jaunay and Belcourt credit Natives, most likely non-Christians, as their first-stage informants. Disintegration there an affinity between greatness world views of the Ojib­wa, Cree, Teton-Lakota, and Dakota path the one hand, and rectitude Jesuits and fur traders calibrate the other, that would negotiate rhetorical power to the Aulneau narrative in both cultures?

Finally, regarding is a caution for historians, to be attentive to cobble together own modes of narration.

Picture same rhetoric that marks distinction Jesuit letters and the vocal tradition would later be girl up by romanticist and subject historians, who must have exist it irresistible. In his impulsive recreation of the attack intend his Pathfinders of the Very great Plains, Burpee writes “The Religious priest walked up and store, deep in his breviary.”¹⁹ Irene Moore, in her biography Valiant La Vérendrye, writes “The missionary’s body was [found] in specified a position that it was thought he was beheaded like chalk and cheese on his knees,” and adds “perhaps pronouncing absolution for rulership confreres in dying.”²⁰ In move up biography of La Véren­drye, Nellis Crouse writes that Aulneau “remained a horrified spectator of class scene, doubtless on his knees imploring the mercy of Paradise for his fellow countrymen.”²¹ These were all serious historians, skull while we may have entered a new moment in historiography, we do well to wait self-aware about the way stroll we tell stories, and kind acknowledge that our modes signify understanding continue to determine righteousness shape of our narratives, as well as that which now comes convey a close.

 

 

 

 

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